The One With An Essay On Canada and Jewish Refugees

I know how you're all missing the moose and beaver puns, but here's another essay for your, um, enjoyment? It was for my class Religion and Culture in Canada and is on Canada's response to Jewsih refugees in the Second World War.

‘Kosher not welcome in Canada’ – Canada, Jews and the Second World War

By Hannah Barr

If one was tasked with having to sum up the history of the Jewish people in the twentieth century, no doubt one would immediately be drawn to figures such as Stalin and Hitler for their systematic attempts to wipe out an entire race within the continent of Europe. In the case of the latter, who knows what heights his Final Solution may have reached had the Allies in the Second World War not defeated him. The reason why such political figures are synonymous with the history of the Jewish people is because of their active involvement in the total genocide of all Jewry. To the rest of the world, beginning with the League of Nations and then with the United Nations, Hitler and Stalin are abhorrence personified; their actions denounced as barbaric and inhumane in the way that they sent millions upon millions of innocent people to the most horrific deaths, purely because of their Jewish race and religion. However, it is not just racist dictators who sent innocent Jews to their deaths in the twentieth century in Europe. Increasingly, light is being shed upon the supposedly humanitarian nations of Great Britain, the United States of America and Canada, and their attitudes towards Jewish people in World War Two. What has come to light, particularly in the case of Canada, is that the direct choice to legislate against Jewish refugees from Europe as ‘un-preferred’ resulted in an indirect death warrant. How many thousands of Jewish lives could have been saved without selfish Canadian legislation it is impossible to determine.

Canada was notorious for its pedantic immigration policies. Despite its relative un-population, it was still adversely affected by the economic Great Depression of the twenties, and was therefore reluctant to admit immigrants who would constitute a drain on resources and not help to economically build up the country. Consequently, ‘Hitler’s…victims found themselves surrounded by barriers which made escape almost impossible…during these tragic years the economic crisis made the world deaf to the pleas of hundreds of thousands of potential migrants whose urge to leave the countries in which they were persecuted was stronger than any economic or political push had ever been before.’[1] Despite this desire for economic stability, potential Jewish immigrants from Europe were classed as being a “non-preferred” type of immigrant and attempts at entering Canada were, more often than not, viciously thwarted. In the most thorough and ground-breaking exposé on Canada’s treatment of Jews in and around the World War Two period, None Is Too Many, authors Irving Abella and Harold Troper recount many stories of European Jews desperate to emigrate to Canada, and the stone wall of anti-Semitic bureaucracy they encountered.  They introduce the reader to the Kohn family, who ‘as Jews…sensed what awaited them should the Nazis make good their threat of annexing Czechoslovakia’[2] where they lived under precarious conditions. As their relatives in Canada did all they could to try and ensure entry into Canada from the jaws of anti-Semitic Europe, the Kohn family discovered that Eastern Europe within Hitler’s grasp and Canada were on the same wave length with regards to the Jewish people; the telegram the Kohn family received from their relatives in Canada said simply: ‘Kosher not welcome in Canada.’[3] It seems a far cry and almost unbelievable that, in the light of the presentation of Canada today as the “mosaic” with an open-door policy to worldwide immigrants, that it could have legislated in favour of barricading its borders to a group that, not only could help Canada in its post-economic Depression state, but that was also in mortal peril. Just how could a democracy, a humanitarian country, class an entire group of people as “non-preferred” when they were fleeing a political situation viewed by the Canadian Government as, essentially, a “non-preferred” regime?

One of the major barriers to Jewish refugees from Europe to Canada was in the demands for capital stated in official immigration policy. By 1938, ‘the capital requirement for Jewish applicants was raised from $5,000 to $20,000, and by the end of the year, even that amount was insufficient[4] for Jews trying to gain access to Canada. The demands for such extortionate capital made upon Jews hoping to emigrate were farcical; their very impetus for trying to gain entry to Canada was to escape the persecution they were facing in Europe under Hitler. One of the characteristics of Hitlerite oppression of Jewish people in Europe was confiscating their possessions and their wealth. Thus, thousands of Jews hoping to enter Canada to escape persecution could not because the effects of their oppression negated Canada’s strict immigration requirements. The problem for Europe’s Jews trying to flee the Nazi regime to Canada was that across the Atlantic Ocean, anti-Semitism was just as rife as it was on the continent. This can chiefly be seen in an Order-in-Council dated February 23, 1922 which ‘inaugurated a closed door policy by prohibiting all immigration from Eastern Europe except for categories not particularly applicable to Jews.’[5] The kinds of categories of migrants desired included those in professions such as farming, an area of work not traditionally ascribed to typically urban-dwelling Jews who were held in Canadian public perception as ‘city people.’[6] However, as David Rome expounds, ‘it is not so much the contents of the Order-in-Council or its phraseology which marked the introduction of a principle dangerous and damaging to all democratic traditions…as the terms of the administrative regulations…which are not disclosed in the Order-in-Council itself.’[7] At its core, the administrative regulations set in motion by officials of the Department of Immigration in Canada ‘are based upon theories similar in many respects to those subsequently adopted by Hitler and his Nazi party.’[8] Canada, effectively, had anti-Semitic legislation.

Nevertheless, whilst one can undoubtedly draw parallels between Nazi policy and Canadian immigration policy in its treatment of Jewish people, it is important to emphasize the difference in actions upon anti-Semitic beliefs between Adolf Hitler and the Prime Minister of Canada during the Second World War, Mackenzie King. For King, obsessed with political and nation-wide stability, as well as with the stability of his own position in office, often has accusations of anti-Semitism thrown at him, but with good reason. According to Irving and Troper, ‘King was still mixed in his attitude to Hitler – sorrowful over Hitler’s methods, but understanding of his motives.’[9] The fractious relationship between the province of Quebec and the potential for a fractured Canada occurring under his premiership was a chief obsession of King’s and one of his most virulent reasons for opposing any migration, let alone mass migration, of Jews to Canada, in view of the rampant anti-Semitism which blights Quebec’s history and politics. Pre-existent anti-Semitic tensions were one of the reasons for barring Jewish entry to Canada in the period. It was a sentiment recognized around the world. Even Australia, upon being urged to accept Jewish refugees from Europe, is said to have responded in the negative because the country did not have a race problem, so it did not particularly want to import a race problem.

In King’s defence, not that it is much of a defence; his attitude towards the Jews does not seem to have been out-of-step with the general mood of the citizens he represented. ‘As a spinoff of the xenophobia that swept the North American continent in the early twenties’[10] and became increasingly dominant from that point on, ‘a spate of savage books against religious, racial and ethnic aliens was generated.’[11] One of the most notorious examples of such literature was ‘the auto magnate, Henry Ford’s The International Jew, a work that made anti-Semitism a mass idea for the first time in the United States and Canada.’[12] Ingrained – and governmentally endorsed by its silence and lack of opposition – anti-Semitism was, therefore, inevitably going to infiltrate immigration policy, particularly when the full atrocities of the Holocaust had not yet been exposed to the world. The Second World War was ‘no time for Canada to act on humanitarian grounds’[13] towards people trying to get in when it had just sent out its own people to fight. No matter what the situation for the Kohn family, and millions of families like them, their plight just did not register on the moral radar of Canadian politics in the first half of the twentieth century.

Perhaps the most callous politician in his attitude towards Jewish refugees trying to enter Canada is Frederick Charles Blair, ‘whose record as Director of Immigration on behalf of the Canadian people will long shame the nation’[14] as he has been portrayed in Canadian history as the villain, ‘the official barrier to the rescue of fleeing Jews.’[15] All in all, it would appear Blair is deserving of such a casting. It is suggested that he ‘expressed a strong personal distaste for Jews,’[16] and conveyed it politically and practically under the guise of concern for his country and its people, claiming that ‘the arrival of Jews would create anti-Semitism in Canada.’[17] One could only agree with him if he had used ‘exacerbate’ over ‘create’; his feigned concern is hard to swallow for the bitterness of racist and anti-Semitic bile prevalent in his words and actions. Rome denounces the immigration policies which came into force under Blair’s tenure as Director of Immigration stating, ‘another sham beloved of the department which loved to deny life to those fleeing the murders [under Hitler] was the most obscene use of “morality” for its exclusionist purposes.’[18] Examples of this included rejecting the application for immigration of one person on the basis that other members of their family had been denied entry to Canada and it would therefore be considered unacceptable to separate them from their family.

Such a stance leads to postulation over how many lives could have been saved with a benevolent immigration policy; one which, if it accepted one family member, would rescind all the rejections meted out to the rest of the family and, instead, allow the entire family entry to Canada. Whilst public opinion was generally in support of Blair and his policies, the Winnipeg Free Press ‘were consistently critical of the Government’s policy’[19] who argued that ‘the racial prejudices reflected in Canadian immigration restrictions ran counter to the ideals for which Canadians were fighting in the war and kept from the country those who not only needed protection, but also could contribute to the country’s political capabilities.’[20] The overwhelming impression gained from even a cursory analysis of Canadian immigration policy leading up to and during the Second World War is that it was fundamentally anti-Semitic and deliberately antagonistic towards Jewish immigration to Canada, even if it was in the form of refugees fleeing from persecution rather than for economic gains. Implicitly legislated into Government policy were tangible consequences for European Jewry: cattle cars and crematoria.

The refusal to let in refugees by Canada, and other democracies around the world who formed the Allied Forces, was propaganda gold for Nazi Germany. In view of ‘the apparent hypocrisy of the Western democracies’ condemnation of Hitler’s practices towards Jews while themselves refusing to provide permanent sanctuary was used in German propaganda’[21] to justify their systematic genocide of the Jewish people. Weltkampf, a Berlin publication, ‘observed in 1939, “we are saying openly that we do not want the Jews while the democracies keep on claiming that they are willing to receive them – then leave the guests out in the cold. Aren’t we savages better men after all?”’[22] Indeed, when the President of the United States, Franklin D. Roosevelt, called the Allied nations together for a conference to discuss the issue of Jewish refugees, the outcome just demonstrated the impotency of any shred of compassion on the part of those governments towards the persecution of an entire racial group. The Evian Conference met in July of 1938 and whilst ‘representatives of thirty two governments…were present, no delegates of the Jewish bodies were invited.’[23] In a meeting of world democracies to discuss an humanitarian issue, they excluded representatives from bodies who would have been best equipped to articulate the needs of the Jewish refugees of Europe. However, several of Jewish organizations did send ‘delegations to Evian in order to inform the conference and its members individually on the needs of the refugees.’[24] In a memorandum to conference members submitted by the Reichsvertretung der Juden in Deutschland, it stated that ‘since the Nazis had assumed power, the number of Jews had been reduced…to about 350,000.’[25] In spite of such harrowing statistics, the outcomes of the Evian Conference were far removed from the expectations one might have assumed from a meeting of such countries on such a matter.

Out of all the countries who took part in the Evian Conference, only one of them was willing to open its doors to Jewish refugees, the Dominican Republic. It has been theorized that, if each of the presiding nations had permitted refuge to 28,000 Jews, every Jew in Europe could have been saved. What renders this statistic all the more appalling is that 28,000 Jews would have made up less than one per cent of any of the populations of the nations involved in the Evian Conference. But Canada, like the majority of the countries represented in Evian in 1938, was ambivalent to the refugee crisis. Evian showed clearly that ‘no-one wanted Jews.’[26] In the years following the Evian Conference, Canada demonstrated its complete lack of commitment to solving the Jewish refugee crisis; figures for immigration to Canada show that ‘the number of Jews entering the country during [this period]: 1940 – 329; 1942 – 41; 1944 – 74.’[27] In other words, as the number of Jewish refugees entering Canada decreases, the number entering the gas chambers of Europe increases; this is despite the fact that Canada was perfectly able to absorb a large number of refugees without any substantial threat of ghettoization or unassailable settlings of Jewish refugee conglomerates.  Furthermore, from a purely statistical point of view, Canada had the capacity to ‘absorb from five to ten thousand Jews per annum among its population, without appreciably increasing the proportion of Jews to the total population.’[28] It would appear that anti-Semitism in Canada had reached its zenith in the way its actions almost paralleled Nazi Germany, albeit indirectly. In acting for Canada, it acted against the Jews of Europe and allowed Hitler’s Final Solution to progress without obstacle.

However, the actions of the Canadian Government can be seen in certain circumstances to be an almost active signing of the death warrant of hundreds of Jews. One situation in particular has been so widely condemned, its infamy has been turned into a best-selling novel and an award-winning motion picture, the SS St Louis. It is one of ‘the most dramatic and highly publicized incidents of Jewish flight from Germany when…in the spring of 1939, the Nazi effort to make Germany Judenrein accelerated.’[29] A ship full of Jewish refugees made its way from Europe to Cuba, where its passengers were told they could disembark and where they could seek refuge from Nazi persecution. However, ‘the line failed to inform the 930 permit holders who sailed on the SS St Louis bound for Havana that the Cuban government had revoked the permits.’[30] What followed was a ship full of desperate refugees sailing north, from port to port, only to be refused entry each time. When called upon to help the passengers and allow them to disembark, the United States Navy issued no response, but simply sent out some ships to escort the SS St Louis away from American waters. ‘Canada did not want the refugees travelling on the vessel either – “none is too many,” an immigration agent would say.’[31]

In an interview to mark a memorial for the SS St Louis and its fate Sol Messinger, who was just six years old and one of the 907 German Jews aboard the ship, said, ‘”nobody wanted us…it was terrible – terrible, terrible – of Canada…of all countries, to not let us in.’[32] Turned away from Canada, despite being just under forty eight hours away from Halifax Harbour, Canadian immigration policy dictated that the SS St Louis be sent back to Germany and the jaws of Hitler. The National Holocaust Memorial Museum in Washington DC, has attempted to track down the fates of the 906 passengers on board the SS St Louis, but with no firm figures yet established. An article from last year’s National Post, however, reported that ‘254 of the Jews turned away by the Mackenzie King Government’[33] would ultimately become part of larger numbers in Holocaust death statistics. Whilst none was supposedly too many Jews for Canada to admit, six million seemingly was not too many Jews to die. It is unsurprising that, after the war, Jewish groups within Canada accused the King Government of playing Pilate to Hitler’s executioner.

The SS St Louis is not an isolated example of ships full of refugees being turned away from Canada’s ports; ‘reaching a Canadian port did not always mean rescue for the fleeing immigrant.’[34] Whilst it is delving into the realms of hyperbole to decry Canada as being complicit in the Holocaust, it is a fair assessment to make that Canada undoubtedly contributed to preventable deaths through its refusal to address the Jewish refugee crisis. Of course, it was not alone in this; Great Britain, the United States and Australia, to name but a few nations, behaved in the same regard towards the Jews of Europe. The Canadian consuls were dead set on a mission of refugee rejection. For ‘the citizens of Canada – separated by ocean, channel and continent from the operations of their officials – were not aware of the cold face of cruelty, harshness, inhumanity and anti-Semitism presented to their clients by men who wore the cockade of Canada on their civil service uniform.’[35] The Kohn family and their story, as re-told by Abella and Troper, had to learn the craft of passing the Canadian consul and the immigration application tests, including providing false information. They reapplied as Christians, and some of their Jewish compatriots who followed suit ‘would never see the inside of a synagogue again…true they had survived while so many had perished – but only because they abandoned their faith.’[36]

The very fact that Jewish immigrants had to falsify their very racial heritage in order to escape death, presents a frighteningly abhorrent picture of the immigration officials both at home and in Europe. Horror stories from the Canadian consuls abound, all because of ‘an absence of compassionate imagination for many decades made it difficult for Canadians to understand that refugees will resort to untruths to enter Canada. The alternative before them had a number: six million.[37] After his interview for entry to Canada, one Jewish man reported that ‘the consul has asked him why the cock shuts his eyes as he crows. Failing an answer, the Jew was refused [entry to Canada] because “we do not need such fools.”’[38] This anecdote would seem ridiculous if its consequences were not so devastating. It appears as the apparent legitimacy of anti-Semitism embedded in Canadian immigration policy permitted its enforcers to exploit minutiae in order to keep to the order of barring Jewish refugees from entering Canada. A particularly heinous portrayal of this attitude can be seen in the story of when ‘an examining doctor [at the Canadian consul] stood on the stomach of a prostrate applicant for immigration and then ruled that the candidate is not strong enough,’[39] purely to bar his entry from Canada on the grounds of ill health which would constitute a burden for Canada and her resources. Petty pedants were the Canadian immigration officials, fuelled by a Blair-ite anti-Semitism endorsed by Mackenzie King.

At all levels of office, from consul to Parliament, there was a conspiracy to keep the Jewish refugees from Canada. Had Canada, like the rest of the world, not been in ignorance of the atrocities of the Final Solution, it could be argued that implicit anti-Semitism would have been struck from immigration policy. But, because Canada continued to enact its exclusivist policies, its humanity as a nation during that period, is today under intense scrutiny. In Ottawa, there was an utter ruthlessness in the way it dealt with any Jewish refugees who made it inland from the harbours, and the threat of deportation was imminent and Ottawa’s ‘harshness turned the ethical concept of law and order from a virtue to a viciousness.’[40] With anti-Semitic opinions essentially rendered legitimate, Jewish refugees faced rigorous scrutiny in their quest to stay in Canada. In a story that emerged in Canada after the war, the former refugee recalled being ‘in one of these little room holding some thirty persons, we read Yiddish graffiti: “this is the beginning of your hell. You can give up hope now.” We were soon told that we could not enter Canada.’[41] He was deported. Within Canada, there was Jewish graffiti about hell; meanwhile, Jews in Europe carved the same sentiments into the walls of concentration camp dormitory blocks.

Thus far, a rather damning report on Canada during World War Two has been conveyed. But, in spite of the ingrained anti-Semitism allowed to fester until it infiltrated official Government policy, there were select groups and key individuals who worked tirelessly within Canada for the benefit of Jewish refugees. These ranged from petitioning the Government persistently to change their immigration policy, to business owners intent on hiring as many Jews as possible, exploiting the most minute of loop holes within immigration policy. One of the junior members of Blair’s Department of Immigration was Escott Reid, who understood the non-preferred category of the immigration policy for what it really was and declared, ‘if I could find a loop hole I’d feel like I’d justified my existence before I become a machine-like cold-blooded bureaucrat.’[42] His determination led him ‘to fight for the admission of some Jewish refugees because it was right and just and Christian.’[43] However successful he was in fulfilling this pledge is unknown, but his determination and comprehension of the injustice to Jews embedded in Canada’s immigration policy in some small way helps to encounter the atrocities legislated by King and his Government, redeeming Canada in some small way. Nevertheless, the very fact that Jews had to be snuck in to a democracy, not a dictatorship, is a very negative reflection on the humanitarian credentials of the King Government.

Abella and Troper are at pains to emphasize that, although Canada meant that ‘the fate of historical Jewry was not sealed by the Nazis alone,’[44] this is ‘not a negative reflection of the Jewish groups in Canada who tried.’[45] As a consequence of the rampant anti-Semitism which permeated day-to-day life in Canada, the ‘impotency of Canadian Jewry was exposed.’[46] The refugee crisis in Europe was devastating for Canadian Jewry, yet they themselves were just as helpless: ‘Canadian Jews, substantially all from Eastern Europe, were frustrated in their helplessness as they were witness to…catastrophe. The more so as they had no forum for uniting expression or action after the Canadian Jewish Congress was dissolved soon after its convening in 1919.’[47] For post-War Canada, its Canadian Jewry became the group where Holocaust reality ultimately prickedthe Canadian conscience and forced it to examine the morality of its immigration policy towards Jewish refugees. A female Jewish factory worker received a letter at work one day, after the War; ‘from her family of eighty five people, everyone was killed with the exception of her sister and her child.’[48] Despite Canadian immigration policy having a clause to permit Jewish refugees entry to Canada if they had family already established in the country, the anti-Semitic bias of the majority of immigration officials isolated Canada from refugees. Canadian citizens had to live with the most intimate consequences of Canada’s closed doors which resulted from closed-minded attitudes to different races and religions.

As a non-Canadian approaching this subject, it is easy to appear callous in my objectivity; but uncovering the nearly identical attitudes of British attitudes to Jewish refugees to Canadian attitudes has been an uncomfortable revelation to discover, one that casts doubt on the black and white history-telling of the Second World War, where the Allies are pure “goodies” and the Nazis the ultimate “baddies.” Ultimately, Kosher was not welcome in Canada in the Second World War, when Jewry most needed help. Whilst it is imperative not to tar all Canadian citizens in that period with the same brush, had popular perception of Jews at that time not been antagonistic in character, the chances of immigration policy being crafted and implemented in a way so overwhelmingly detrimental to the success of Jewish refugees entering Canada, would be much slimmer. Who knows where Blair, King and others developed their anti-Semitic viewpoints? But, had allowing a deluge of Jewish refugees into Canada not have put their positions in Government into a precarious position, it is – hopefully – unlikely that they would have implicitly legislated racism in contravention of public opinion. Kosher was not welcome in Canada from every level: from the everyday Canadian in every province, all the way to King as Prime Minister. From the global stage to the provincial one, Kosher was just not welcome in Canada despite, as a country, fighting against the regime which displaced European Jewry in the first place. Nazi propaganda denounced Canada’s (and the other Allies’) actions as hypocrisy and it was right. The result is that Canada must now assess to what extent its war effort has been undermined by its un-humanitarian approach towards the people it was, ultimately, fighting to liberate. As an outsider, Britain could not have defeated the Nazis without the thousands of Canadian soldiers and for their role in victory, countless millions of Jewish lives were consequently spared. But there is still the ‘if only…’. If only Canada had fought anti-Semitism on its home turf, like it did on the European battlefields, how many more lives could Canada have saved?

Bibliography

Abella, I., and Troper, H., None Is Too Many: Canada and the Jews of Europe 1933-1948, (Lester Publishing Limited: 1991).

Blaze-Carlzon, K., ‘None is too many: Memorial for Jews turned away from Canada in 1939’ published in National Post, January 17, 2011. URL: http://news.nationalpost.com/2011/01/17/none-is-too-many-memorial-for-jews-turned-away-from-canada/ accessed 3 November, 2012.

Davies, A., How Silent Were the Churches? Canadian Protestantism and the Jewish Plight During the Nazi Era, (Wilfred Laurier University Press: 2010).

Kelley, N., and Trebilcock, M., The Making of the Mosaic: A History of Canadian Immigration Policy, (University of Toronto Press: 2010).

Mendelsohn, J., ‘The Holocaust: Rescue and Relief Documentation in the National Archive’ in Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Vol. 450, Reflections on the Holocaust: Historical, Philosophical, and Education Dimensions, (July 1980), pp.237-249, (Sage Publications Incorporated).

Rome, D., Clouds in the Thirties: On Anti-Semitism in Canada, 1929-1939: a Chapter on Canadian Jewish History, (Canadian Jewish Congress, National Archives: 1977).

Wischnitzer, M., ‘Jewish Emigration from Germany, 1933-1938’ in Jewish Social Studies, Vol. 2, No. 1, pp.23-44. (Indiana University Press).

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[1] Rome, D., Clouds in the Thirties: On Anti-Semitism in Canada, 1929-1939: a Chapter on Canadian Jewish History, (Canadian Jewish Congress, National Archives: 1977), p.145.

[2] Abella, I., and Troper, H., None Is Too Many: Canada and the Jews of Europe 1933-1948, (Lester Publishing Limited: 1991), p.1.

[3] Ibid. p.2.

[4] Kelley, N., and Trebilcock, M., The Making of the Mosaic: A History of Canadian Immigration Policy, (University of Toronto Press: 2010), p.265.

[5] Rome, D., Clouds in the Thirties: On Anti-Semitism in Canada, 1929-1939: a Chapter on Canadian Jewish History, (Canadian Jewish Congress, National Archives: 1977), p.175.

[6] Abella, I., and Troper, H., None Is Too Many: Canada and the Jews of Europe 1933-1948, (Lester Publishing Limited: 1991), p.5.

[7] Rome, D., Clouds in the Thirties: On Anti-Semitism in Canada, 1929-1939: a Chapter on Canadian Jewish History, (Canadian Jewish Congress, National Archives: 1977), p.176.

[8] Ibid. p.176.

[9] Abella, I., and Troper, H., None Is Too Many: Canada and the Jews of Europe 1933-1948, (Lester Publishing Limited: 1991), p.37.

[10] Davies, A., How Silent Were the Churches? Canadian Protestantism and the Jewish Plight During the Nazi Era, (Wilfred Laurier University Press: 2010), p.8.

[11] Ibid. p.8.

[12] Ibid. p.8.

[13] Abella, I., and Troper, H., None Is Too Many: Canada and the Jews of Europe 1933-1948, (Lester Publishing Limited: 1991), p.17.

[14] Rome, D., Clouds in the Thirties: On Anti-Semitism in Canada, 1929-1939: a Chapter on Canadian Jewish History, (Canadian Jewish Congress, National Archives: 1977), p.194.

[15] Ibid. p.195.

[16] Abella, I., and Troper, H., None Is Too Many: Canada and the Jews of Europe 1933-1948, (Lester Publishing Limited: 1991), p.8.

[17] Ibid. p.8.

[18] Rome, D., Clouds in the Thirties: On Anti-Semitism in Canada, 1929-1939: a Chapter on Canadian Jewish History, (Canadian Jewish Congress, National Archives: 1977), p.187.

[19] Kelley, N., and Trebilcock, M., The Making of the Mosaic: A History of Canadian Immigration Policy, (University of Toronto Press: 2010), p.258.

[20] Ibid. p.258.

[21] Ibid. p.256.

[22] Ibid. p.256.

[23] Wischnitzer, M., ‘Jewish Emigration from Germany, 1933-1938’ in Jewish Social Studies, Vol. 2, No. 1, pp.23-44. (Indiana University Press), p.33.

[24] Ibid. p.33.

[25] Ibid. p.33.

[26] Abella, I., and Troper, H., None Is Too Many: Canada and the Jews of Europe 1933-1948, (Lester Publishing Limited: 1991), p.32.

[27] Rome, D., Clouds in the Thirties: On Anti-Semitism in Canada, 1929-1939: a Chapter on Canadian Jewish History, (Canadian Jewish Congress, National Archives: 1977), p.243.

[28] Ibid. p.246.

[29] Mendelsohn, J., ‘The Holocaust: Rescue and Relief Documentation in the National Archive’ in Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, Vol. 450, Reflections on the Holocaust: Historical, Philosophical, and Education Dimensions, (July 1980), pp.237-249, (Sage Publications Incorporated), p.245.

[30] Ibid. p.246.

[31] Blaze-Carlzon, K., ‘None is too many: Memorial for Jews turned away from Canada in 1939’ published in National Post, January 17, 2011. URL: http://news.nationalpost.com/2011/01/17/none-is-too-many-memorial-for-jews-turned-away-from-canada/ accessed 3 November, 2012.

[32] Ibid.

[33] Ibid.

[34] Rome, D., Clouds in the Thirties: On Anti-Semitism in Canada, 1929-1939: a Chapter on Canadian Jewish History, (Canadian Jewish Congress, National Archives: 1977), p.22.

[35] Ibid. p.204.

[36] Abella, I., and Troper, H., None Is Too Many: Canada and the Jews of Europe 1933-1948, (Lester Publishing Limited: 1991), p.2.

[37] Rome, D., Clouds in the Thirties: On Anti-Semitism in Canada, 1929-1939: a Chapter on Canadian Jewish History, (Canadian Jewish Congress, National Archives: 1977), p.206.

[38] Ibid. p.211

[39] Ibid. p.213.

[40] Ibid. p.206.

[41] Ibid. p.231.

[42] Abella, I., and Troper, H., None Is Too Many: Canada and the Jews of Europe 1933-1948, (Lester Publishing Limited: 1991), p.38.

[43] Ibid. p.39.

[44] Ibid. p.280.

[45] Ibid. p.283.

[46] Abella, I., and Troper, H., None Is Too Many: Canada and the Jews of Europe 1933-1948, (Lester Publishing Limited: 1991), p.32.

[47] Rome, D., Clouds in the Thirties: On Anti-Semitism in Canada, 1929-1939: a Chapter on Canadian Jewish History, (Canadian Jewish Congress, National Archives: 1977), p.239.

[48] Abella, I., and Troper, H., None Is Too Many: Canada and the Jews of Europe 1933-1948, (Lester Publishing Limited: 1991), p.190.